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  Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage Syndrome Introduction Imagine suddenly struggling to breathe, coughing up blood , and being rushed to the hospital with no clear idea what’s going on. That’s what diffuse alveolar hemorrhage , or DAH , can look like. It’s not a disease in itself—but rather a scary complication of other serious health issues, mostly autoimmune diseases . In simple terms, DAH is when bleeding happens deep inside your lungs, right in the tiny air sacs (called alveoli ) where oxygen usually moves into your blood. When those air sacs fill with blood, breathing becomes really difficult—and without fast treatment, it can be life-threatening. So, What Exactly Is DAH? Let’s keep it straightforward: Diffuse Alveolar Hemorrhage means there’s bleeding spread across many of the alveoli in your lungs. These little sacs are like balloons that fill with air every time you breathe. But in DAH, instead of air, they get flooded with blood. That means less oxygen can get into you...

Norovirus: A Common Yet Serious Cause of Stomach Flu Norovirus is a highly contagious virus that causes acute gastroenteritis —an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. It’s often mistaken for the “ stomach flu ,” though it’s not related to the influenza virus . Norovirus outbreaks are common, particularly in crowded places such as schools, cruise ships, nursing homes, and hospitals. Although it usually causes a short-term illness, its rapid spread and intensity make it a serious public health concern. Overview and Importance Norovirus is responsible for over 685 million cases of illness globally each year , with children and elderly individuals being the most vulnerable. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), it is the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States , causing about 50% of all food-related outbreaks . Symptoms of Norovirus Infection Symptoms typically begin within 12 to 48 hours after exposure and can last anywhere from 1 to...

Biliary Atresia: Causes, Pathogenesis, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Introduction: What is Biliary Atresia? Biliary atresia is a rare, progressive liver disorder in infants where the bile ducts become inflamed, blocked, or completely absent. Since bile cannot drain from the liver into the intestine, it accumulates in the liver, leading to liver inflammation, scarring ( cirrhosis ) , and eventual liver failure if untreated. Pathogenesis of Biliary Atresia The pathogenesis of biliary atresia is multifactorial and not fully understood, but several mechanisms have been proposed: Prenatal Factors : In some cases, bile duct malformation begins in utero , possibly due to genetic or developmental anomalies. Perinatal Inflammatory Insult : The most accepted theory involves perinatal immune-mediated bile duct injury, possibly triggered by viral infections (e.g., rotavirus , reovirus type 3 , cytomegalovirus ) . These infections may lead to Cholangiocyte injury (bile duct ...

Gangrene: Causes, Symptoms, Types, Treatment, and Physiotherapy Management Introduction Gangrene is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when a significant mass of body tissue dies ( necrosis ). It results from a critical lack of blood supply, often caused by infection, injury, or chronic disease that impairs circulation. Without immediate treatment, gangrene can spread rapidly, causing systemic infection ( sepsis ), amputation, or death. Gangrene most commonly affects the extremities like the toes, fingers, hands, and feet, but it can also occur in internal organs and muscles. Symptoms of Gangrene Symptoms of gangrene depend on the type and location but commonly include Skin discoloration (black, blue, purple, red, or bronze) Numbness or severe pain in the affected area Swelling and blisters that may emit a foul-smelling discharge A sudden drop in temperature or coolness of the affected skin Tissue that feels cold, hard, or dry Fever...

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Thalassemia Thalassemias are inherited disorders caused by mutations in globin genes that decrease the synthesis of α- or β-globin. Decreased synthesis of one globin results not only in a deficiency of Hb but also in red cell damage that is caused by precipitates formed from excess unpaired "normal" globin chains. The mutations that cause thalassemia are particularly common in Mediterranean, African, and Asian regions in which malaria is endemic. As with HbS, it is hypothesized that globin mutations associated with thalassemia protect against falciparum malaria. Pathogenesis A diverse collection of α-globin and β-globin mutations underlies the thalassemias, which are autosomal codominant conditions. Adult hemoglobin (HbA) is composed of two α chains and two β chains. α chains are encoded by two α-globin genes on chromosome 16. β chains are encoded by a single β-globin gene on chromosome 11. Clinical features vary widely depending on the combination of mutated alleles inherite...

Hereditary Spherocytosis This disorder stems from inherited (intrinsic) defects in the red cell membrane. Leads to the formation of spherocytes — non-deformable cells that are highly vulnerable to sequestration and destruction in the spleen. Usually transmitted as an autosomal dominant trait . A more severe autosomal recessive form affects a small minority of patients. Pathogenesis Caused by inherited defects in the membrane skeleton , a network of proteins stabilizing the lipid bilayer of red cells. Major membrane skeleton protein: spectrin — a long, flexible heterodimer that: Self-associates at one end. Binds short actin filaments at the other. These interactions form a two-dimensional meshwork , connected to transmembrane proteins ( band 3 and glycophorin ) via linker proteins : ankyrin band 4.2 band 4.1 Most common mutations involve: ankyrin band 3 spectrin Pathogenic mutations: Weaken vertical interactions between the...